Introduction to Statistics
- Introduction to Statistics
- •Names and Numbers: Types of Variables
- •Examples
- •Describing Data
- •Frequencies and Distributions
- •Measures of The Middle: Means, Medians, and Modes
- •Measures of Variation: Range, Percentile, and Standard Deviation
- •Normal Distribution
- •Standard Scores
- •Parametric Statistics
- •Statistical Inference
- •Samples and Populations
- •Standard Errors
- •The Central Limit Theory
- •Inferences About Means Values Based on a Single Sample
- •Type I and Type II Errors, Alpha-Levels and Beta-Levels, and Other Rules of Statistical Etiquette
- •One-Tailed Tests and Two-Tailed Tests
- •Confidence Intervals
- •Parametric and Nonparametric Statistics
- •Sample Size Calculations
- •Statistical Versus Clinical Signifigance
- •Examples
- •Comparison of Means of Two Samples: The t Test
- •The Paired t Test
- •The Two-Group Pretest-Posttest Design
- •Examples
- •Comparison among Many Means: Analysis of Variance
- •Factorial ANOVA
- •Repeated Measures ANOVA
- •Examples
- •Relationship between Interval and Ratio Variables: Linear and Multiple Regression
- •Testing Signifigance and Strength of Relationship in Simple Regression
- •Two or More Independent Variables: Multiple Regression
- •Examples
- •Analysis of Covariance
- •Examples
- •Variations on Linear Regression: Logistic Regression, General Linear Model, and Hierarchical Linear Models
- •Logistic Regression
- •The General Linear Model
- •Hierarchical Linear Models
- •Examples
- •Time Series Analysis
- •Examples
- •Nonparametric Statistics
- •Nonparametric Tests of Significance
- •Tests For Nominal Data
- •The Chi-Square Test
- •The Binomial Test
- •Fisher’s Exact Test
- •The McNemar Test
- •Nonparametric Tests on Ordinal Variables
- •The Mann-Whitney U Test
- •The Median Test
- •The Kruskal-Wallis One-Way Analysis of Variance by Ranks
- •The Kolmogorov-Smirnov Test
- •Tests of Ordinal Variables on Matched Samples
- •The Sign Test
- •The Wilcoxon Test
- •Discussion
- •Examples
- •Nonparametric Measures of Association
- •Measures of Association For Nominal Variables
- •Contingency Coefficient
- •Phi Coefficient
- •Cohen’s Kappa Coefficient
- •Measures of Association For Ordinal Variables
- •Spearman’s Rank Correlation Coefficient (Rho)
- •Kendall’s Tau
- •Kendall’s W (Coefficient of Concordance)
- •Measures of Magnitude of Effect
- •Weighted Kappa
- •Examples
- •Advanced Nonparametric Methods
- •Mantel-Haenszel Chi-Square
- •Life Table (or Survival) Analysis
- •Log-Linear Analysis
- •Example
- •Multivariate Statistics
- •Introduction to Multivariate Statistics
- •What Do We Mean By “Multivariate?”
- •Multivariate Analysis of Variance
- •A Graphical Introduction
- •More Than Two Groups
- •Examples
- •Discriminant Function Analysis
- •Examples
- •Exploratory Factor Analysis
- •Correlation Among Variables
- •What Are Factors?
- •Deriving The Factors
- •How Many Factors to Keep
- •Factor Loadings
- •Factor Rotation
- •Orthogonal Rotational
- •Applications of Factor Analysis
- •Examples
- •Path Analysis and Structural Equation Modeling
- •Path Analysis
- •Types of Variables
- •Causality and Model Building
- •Different Types of Path Models
- •Recursive and Nonrecursive Models
- •Keep It Simple, Stupid (KISS)
- •Results
- •Structural Equation Modeling
- •Measured and Latent Variables
- •Factor Analysis and SEM
- •The Advantages of Latent Variables
- •Putting It All Together
- •Model Specification
- •Model Identification
- •Estimation
- •Test of Fit
- •Respecification
- •Sample Size
- •What It All Means
- •Factor Analysis Redux
- •Summary: Some Cautions
- •Examples
- •Cluster Analysis
- •Methods of Classifying Data
- •Hierarchical Methods
- •Partitioning Methods
- •Examples
- •Canonical Correlation
- •Canonical Variates and Variables
- •Partial Correlation
- •Redundancy
- •Statistical Signifigance
- •Examples
- •Reprise
- •Graphing
- •Bar Charts, Histograms, and Line Charts
- •Stem-and-Leaf Plots and Box Plots
- •How Not to Draw Graphs
- •Dealing With Missing Data
- •Ignoring the Missing Data
- •Replacing with the Mean
- •Hot-Deck Imputation
- •Multiple Regression
- •Last Observation Carried Forward
- •Multiple Imputation
- •Research Designs
- •Types of Research Designs
- •Randomized Control Trial
- •Cohort Study
- •Prospective Survey
- •Case-Control Study
- •Cross-Sectional Survey
- •Before–After Design
- •Implications For Statistics
- •Index